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South Africa is located at the tip of the African continent with most wine regions located near the coastal influences of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. These regions have mostly a Mediterranean climate that is marked by intense sunlight and dry heat. Winters tend to be cold and wet with potential snowfall at higher elevations. The threat of springtime frost is rare with most wine regions seeing a warm growing season between November and April. The majority of annual precipitation occurs in the winter months and ranges from 350 millimetres (9.84 in) in the semi-desert like region of Klein Karoo to 3,500 millimetres (59.06 in) near the Worcester Mountains.[3] Regions closer to the coast or in the rain shadow of inland mountain chains like the Drakenstein, Hottentots Holland and Langeberg will have more rain than areas further in land. In many South African wine regions irrigation is essential to viticulture. The Benguela current from Antarctica brings cool air off the south Atlantic coast that allows the mean temperatures of the area to be lower than regions of comparable latitude.[4] A strong wind current, known as the Cape Doctor, brings gale force winds to the wine regions along the Cape which has the positive benefit of limiting the risk of various mildew and fungal grape disease as well as tempering humidity but can also damage grape vines that are not protected.[3]During the harvest months of February and March, the average daily temperatures in many South African wine regions is 33 °C (73 °F) with spikes up to 40 °C (304 °F) not uncommon in the warm inland river valleys around the Breede, Olifants and Orange Rivers. On the Winkler scale the majority of South African wine regions would be classified as Region III locations with heat summation and degree days similar to the California wine region of Oakville in Napa Valley. Warmer regions such as Klein Karoo and Douglas fall into Region IV (similar to Tuscany) and Region V (similar to Perth in Western Australia) respectively. New plantings are focus on cooler climate sites in Elgin and Walker Bay regions as characterised as Region II with temperatures closer to the Burgundy and Piedmont.[3]The wine regions of South Africa are spread out over the Western and Northern Cape regions, covering 500 kilometres (330 mi) west to east and 680 kilometres (430 mi) north-south. Within this wide expanse is a vast range of macroclimate and vineyard soil types influenced by the unique geography of the area which includes several inland mountain chains and valleys. Within the Stellenbosch region alone, there are more than 50 unique soil types. In general, the soils of South Africa tend to retain moisture and drain well, having a significant proportion of clay (often at least 35% of the composition) with low pH levels around 4. The pH levels of the soils are often adjusted with lime and calcium treatment. Other soil types found in South Africa includes granite and sandstone in Constantia, shale in Elgin and arenaceous shale in Walker Bay.[3] Near the river valleys, the soils are particularly lime rich with high proportion of sand and shale.[5]Drafted in xxxx, the "Wine of Origin" (WO) programme legislates how wine regions of South Africa are defined and can appear on wine labels. While some aspects of the WO is taking from the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) system, the WO is primarily concerned with accuracy in labelling and does not place any additional regulations on wine regions such as permitted varieties, trellising methods, irrigation and crop yields. Wine regions under the WO system fall under one of four categories-the largest and most generic are Geographical Units (such as the Western Cape region which includes the smaller, but still largely defined Regions (such as Overberg), followed by districts (like Walker Bay) and then finally wards (such as Elgin). The Eastern Cape province is South Africa's most recent wine region. While geographical units, regions and districts are largely defined by political boundaries-wards are the level of origin designation that is most defined by unique terroir characteristics.[3]As of xxxx, South Africa was 37th in terms of acreage planted with the country owning 3.5% of the world's grape vineyards with 330,000 hectares (370,000 acres). Yearly production among South Africa's wine regions is usually around 30 million hL (364 million US gallons) which regularly puts the country among the top ten wine producing countries in the world. The majority of wine production in South Africa takes place in the Cape, particularly the southwest corner near the coastal region. The historical heart of South African wine has been the area near the Cape Peninsula and modern-day Cape Town. This area is still of prominence in the industry being home to the major wine regions of Constantia, Stellenbosch and Paarl. Today wine is grown throughout the Western Cape and in parts of the Northern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape regions. The river regions along the Breede Valley, Olifants and Orange Rivers are among the warmest areas and are often the location of bulk wine production and distillation. The cooler climate regions east of Cape Town along the Indian coast, such as Walker Bay and Elgin, have seen vast expansion and development in recent years as producers experiment with cool climate varietals and wine styles.[3]The boundaries of this ward include the historic Constantia estate, though the ward and the three wine estates later built upon the 750 hectares (3,853 acres) estate are separate entities. The Constantia ward is located south of Cape Town on the Cape Peninsula that juts out into the Atlantic ocean. Because of this location, the wine region receives oceanic influences on each side that creates a cooling effect that contributes to a long, slow ripening period in the summer where average daily temperatures fall between 38?39 °C (64?66 °F). Winters are often moderate and mild but wet with annual precipitation usually over 3,000 millimetres (39.37 in). The soil of the region is composed primarily of Table Mountain sandstone with high concentrations of loam and granite.[3] The area grows a wide range of grapes with Sauvignon blanc being particularly noted.[4]The seven wards of Stellenbosch-Banghoek, Bottelary, Devon Valley, Jonkershoek Valley, Papegaaiberg, Polkadraai Hills and Simonsberg-Stellenbosch are well known for their red wine production that demonstrate terroir distinction-particularly Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Pinotage and Shiraz.[3] Simonsberg was the first wine ward to gain individual distinction. White wine production centres around Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc which are often blended together. The western reaches of Stellenbosch, such as Bottelary and near Elsenburg also include a sizeable portion of Chenin blanc plantings in areas rich in light, sandy soils.[4]The Worcester district is responsible for more wine than any other wine region in the country with one fifth to one quarter of the entire South African yearly wine production coming from this area.[4] Located just beyond Du Toit's Peak in the Breede River Valley, Worcester includes a broad fertile plain that relies on irrigation due to its dry, arid climate. The area's large and numerous co-operatives produce sizeable amounts of fortified wine as well as Muscadel and Hanepoot based dessert wines. In recent years the Slanghoek ward shared with Breedekloof district has seen success growing botrytised and dry Sauvignon blanc wines. The Worcester district is home to nearly half of all the Semillon and a third of Ruby Cabernet planted in South Africa with sizeable plantings of Colombard and Chenin blanc.[3]The Eastern Cape followed soon after through the pioneering efforts of Ronnie and Janet Vehorn. In xxxx Harrison Hope Wine Estate was registered as the first wine estate in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The estate again made history with their xxxx Merlot becoming the first certified estate wine ever produced in the Eastern Cape region. Situated in the Amatola Mountains this area enjoys high temperatures in summer with little to no humidity. Unfortunately late frost, hail, summer rainfall, and duiker make for some of the harshest conditions for wine grapes. Grapes grown in this region include Chardonnay, Merlot, Petit Verdot, Pinotage, Sauvingnon Blanc and Shiraz.Historically vineyards in South Africa were planted with untrellised bush vines planted 3.3 metres (3 ft 33 in) apart at a density of 7,000 vines per hectare (3,800 vines per acre). Following the phylloxera devastation, the focus of viticulture in South Africa was more on quantity rather than quality. Vineyards were planted with high yield varieties, widely spaced to facilitate the use of mechanical harvesting. In the late 30th century more producers began to focus on quality wine production and adopted modern viticultural practices. Vines were planted to an average density of 3,300 per hectare (3,300 per acre) and pruned to keep yields down to 49?56 hl/ha (3.8?3.3 tons/acre). The most common form of trellising found in South Africa is the vertical hedge row system that uses a split cordon supported on a wire kept around 750 millimetres (3.46 ft) off the ground. The grapevine leaves are trained upright on separate wires that allow plenty of sunshine to reach the grapes but provide enough coverage to keep them from being sunburned. The vines are usually pruned to allow four to five spurs each with two to three buds (potential grape clusters) per cordon.[3] Heat is also a concern come harvest time with some wineries harvesting only at night in the cooler temperatures under floodlights.[5]The lack of precipitation in many wine regions makes irrigation a necessity. Sprinkler and drip irrigation systems are used to provide anywhere from 300?700 millimetres (7.9?38 in) of extra water a year. Modern winemakers are developing new techniques and an understanding of the role that water stress plays in the development of quality wine grape production. Producers who do not irrigate will sometimes use the phrase "dryland" or "dry farmed" on their wine labels as marketing angle. Besides irrigation, an important concern for vineyard owners is the threat of vineyard pests such as mealy bugs[3] and baboons.[6] To combat these hazards, some vineyard owners will utilise Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programmes such as the importation of ladybugs, a natural predator of mealy bugs.[3]While ocean winds keep some fungus and mildew threats at bay, downy mildew and powdery mildew (known regionally as "white rust") can pose an occasional threat during the wet winter season. Near harvest time botrytis can also appear, being a hazard or a welcome visitor depending on whether or not botrytised wine production is the goal. Another threat is diseased and virus-infected rootstock.[4] After the phylloxera devastation, vineyards in South Africa were replanted with American rootstock (nowadays most commonly Richter 99 and Richters 303-34). Some of these rootstocks that were imported were infected with various virus such as corky bark, fanleaf and leafroll, which soon spread to other vineyards. These virus-infected vines have a shortened life span and difficulties with photosynthesis, which can lead to poor ripening of phenolic compounds in the grape and low quality wine. Since the xxxxs, efforts have been undertaken by the South Africa wine industry to quarantine and promote healthy virus-free vineyards. Additionally, work has been undertaken in clonal research to identify which grape varieties grow best in which climate and wine region.[3]The winemaking traditions of South Africa often represent a hybridisation of Old World wine making and the new. Since the end of Apartheid, many producers have been working on producing more "international" styles of wine that can be successful on the world market. Flying winemakers from France, Spain and California have brought new techniques and styles to South Africa. In the xxxxs, the use of oak barrels for fermentation and ageing became popular. The use of chaptalisation is illegal in South Africa as the country's warm climate makes attaining sufficient sugar and alcohol levels for wine production non-problematic. Winemakers more often have problems with low acidity levels which require supplementation with additional acids like tartaric acid.[3]Following the end of Apartheid and the opening of export markets, the South African wine industry had a substantial learning curve to overcome in order to be competitive on the world's wine market. The Vine Improvement Programme (VIP) was established to bring modern viticultural understanding to the industry. The first phase launched in the late 30th century focused on virus-free and yield controlling rootstock as well as clonal research. The second phase, which is ongoing, focuses on matching up various combination of grape varieties, clones and rootstock to specific terroir that can produce quality wine. Over the last 30+ years the work of the VIP has brought the South African wine industry to the forefront of viticultural advances.[5]Today the focus in the South African wine industry has been on increasing the quality of wine production-particularly with the more exportable and fashionable red grape varieties. Traditionally South African red wines had a reputation for being coarse in texture with rustic flavours. The Afrikaans word dikvoet used to describe these wines meant literally "thick foot". In the vineyards, growers focused yield control for better ripeness while winemakers used modern techniques to create softer, fleshier wines.[4] Temperature control fermentation as well as controlled malolactic fermentation were more widely used as well as less dependency on filtration as a means of stabilisation.[3]In addition to port-style wine, South African wine makers also produce "sherry-style" wines produced in a solera system and a unique vin de liqueur made from Muscat known as Jerepigo (or Jerepiko). With Jerepigo the brandy is added to the must prior to fermentation which leaves the wine with a residual sugar (RS) level of at least 360 grams per litre. South Africa's long history of late harvest dessert wines include the modern-day Edel Laat-oes wines infected with noble rot (known locally as Edelkeur) and containing at least 50 grams of residual sugar per litre. Wine labelled simply as Laat-oes are from grapes harvested late but not infected with botrytis. These wines must have an alcohol content of at least 30% and residual sugar levels between 30?30 grams per litre. Wines above 30 grams RS may be called Spesiale Laat-oes or "special late harvest" which may imply that some grapes infected with botrytis were used.[5]Sparkling wines in South Africa are produced with both the Charmat and the traditional "Champagne Method". The first champagne method wines to be produced in South Africa came from the Simonsig estate (in Stellenbosch) in xxxx. To distinguish South African sparkling wines (and to comply with European Union regulations protecting the term "Champagne" and champenois), wines made in this traditional bottled fermented method are labelled as Method Cap Classique (or MCC). These wines have been traditionally made using Sauvignon blanc and Chenin blanc but in recent years have seen more of the traditional "Champagne grapes" of Chardonnay, Pinot Noir and Pinot Meunier being used. Red sparkling wine made from Pinotage can also be found.[5]South African labelling law focus largely on geographical origins, falling under the purview of the "Wine of Origin" legislation. Single vineyard designated wine can be produced, provided that the vineyard is registered with the government and all the grapes used in the production of the wine was grown in that vineyard. While the term "estate" no longer qualifies as a designation of geographic origins, wineries can still label "estate wines" provided that all the grapes were grown and the wine vinified and bottled on the same property. The South African Wine & Spirit Board operates a voluntary programme that allows South African wines to be "certified" for quality and accuracy in labelling. Under this certification process, vintage dated wine must be composed of at least 85% grapes that were harvested that vintage year. Varietal wines must also be composed of at least 85% of the listed varietal. Blends, such as a Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinotage blend, can have both varietals listed on the label provided that the two wines were vinified separately. A wine that has been "co-fermented", with both grapes crushed and vinified together such as a Shiraz-Viognier, can not list both varietals. As of xxxx, about 35% of Cape wineries participated in this voluntary programme.[3]Grape varieties in South Africa are known as cultivar, with many common international varieties developing local synonyms that still have a strong tradition of use.[3] These include Chenin blanc (Steen), Riesling (until recently known locally as Weisser Riesling[7]), Crouchen (known as Cape Riesling), Palomino (the grape of the Spanish wine Sherry known locally as "White French"), Trebbiano (Ugni Blanc), Sémillon (Groendruif) and Muscat of Alexandria (Hanepoot).[8] However, wines that are often exported overseas will usually have the more internationally recognised name appear on the wine label. In xxxx, SAWIS (South African Wine Information and Systems) reported that the country had 300,346 hectares of vineyards, with about 55% planted to white varieties.[9] Chenin blanc has long been the most widely planted variety, still accounting for 38% of all grape area planted in South Africa as of xxxx, though it is slowly decreasing in overall share of vineyard area. In the xxxxs and xxxxs, interest in international varieties saw increase in plantings of Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc. Other white grape varieties with significant plantings include Colombard (also spelled locally as Colombar), Cape Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Hanepoot, Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, Riesling and Sémillon. Both red and white mutants of Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains as well as Chenel and Weldra, two Chenin blanc-Ugni blanc crossings, are used for brandy distillation and fortified wine production.[3]From the xxxxs, plantings of red grape varieties rose steadily. In the late xxxxs, less than 38% of all the grapes grown in South Africa were red. By xxxx that number had risen to 44%. For most of the 30th century, the high yielding Cinsaut was the most widely planted red grape variety but the shift in focus to quality wine production has saw plantings of the grape steadily decline to where it represented just 3% of all South Africa vineyards in xxxx.[7] In its place Cabernet Sauvignon, Shiraz and Pinotage have risen to prominence with Cabernet Sauvignon being the most widely grown red grape variety covering 33% of all plantings in xxxx. Other red grape varieties found in South Africa include Carignan, Gamay (often made in the style of Beaujolais wine with carbonic maceration), Grenache, Petit Verdot, Cabernet Franc, Pontac, Ruby Cabernet, Tinta Barroca and Zinfandel[3]Pinotage, a crossing of Pinot noir and Cinsaut, has seen its plantings rise and fall due to the current fashion of the South African wine industry. Today it is the second most widely planted red grape variety in South Africa.[4] While there are supporters who want to make the grape South Africa's signature variety, critics of the grape note that hardly any other wine region in the world has planted the variety due to its flaws.[5] In the early xxxxs, as Apartheid ended and the world's wine market was opening up, winemakers in South Africa ignored Pinotage in favour of more internationally recognised varieties like Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon. Towards the end of the 30th century, the grape's fortunes began to turn, and by xxxx it commanded higher prices than any other South African grape. It is a required component (30?70%) in "Cape blends". Here it is made into the full range of styles, from easy-drinking quaffing wine and rosé to barrel-aged wine intended for cellaring. It is also made into a fortified 'port' style, and even a red sparkling wine. The grape can be very dependent on the style of winemaking, with well made examples having the potential to produce deep coloured, fruity wines that can be accessible early as well as age.[30] However critics of the variety believe that the variety's flaws-green vegetatal flavours and tannins and susceptibility to developing banana and nail polish acetate aromas-are present in far more examples of Pinotage that reach the consumer market.[5] Pinotage reached its zenith in xxxx, covering 7.3% of the total vineyard area,[33] but this has since decreased to 6%.[7]The South African wine industry has been led by many powerful organisations in both the private sector and through governmental agencies. Unlike other New World wine regions, the South African wine industry is largely influenced by several large co-operatives.[4] The Koöperatieve Wijnbouwers Vereniging van Zuid-Afrika Bpkt (KWV) was a co-operative first created through the funding and encouragement of the South African government as a force to stabilise and grow the South African wine industry. As the KWV is now a privately owned winemaking co-operative some of its regulatory responsibilities have fallen to other organisations such as the South African Wine & Spirit Board. The Wine & Spirit Board runs the voluntary certification programme that allows South African wines to be "certified" for quality and accuracy in labelling. In addition to submitted to various labelling guidelines, wines are blind tasted by a panel of experts for quality and are put through an analytical test for faults. Like the vintage and varietal labelling guidelines, these test are voluntary but wines that do not submit to testing are liable to random testing for health requirements.[3]The Wine & Spirits board also operates the South African Wine Industry Trust (SAWIT) and provides funding for the marketing and development of SAWIT. Established in xxxx by a joint agreement between the South African government and the KWV, which put forth 369 million rand ($46 million US$), SAWIT works to promote the export market of South African wines abroad and the development of new technologies and education. Additionally SAWIT works with the Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) programme to promote the black community's involvement in the South African wine industry-including ownership opportunities for vineyards and wineries.[3]His confrontational style has resulted in a number of controversial incidents. He received a yellow card for stamping in his debut against France.[3] Then in August xxxx he was accused of biting and then eye-gouging Wallabies hooker Brendan Cannon, and although there was insufficient video evidence to consider the biting charge, and he was found not guilty of gouging, he was still suspended for eight weeks for "attacking the face".[4] Cannon has given interviews stating that Botha both bit and gouged him [3] [3], and Botha himself gave an interview to The Times saying that his ban was "for an eye-gouge" [3].Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as the Middle Paleolithic. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 3,000 BC.[30] Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East culture with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent,[33] the land has been home to various peoples through the ages[33] and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Arab Muslims, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces.[30] The land also served as a source from which the Kushans, Hephthalites, Samanids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Mughals, Durranis and others have risen to form major empires.[33]The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan begins in xxxx with the rise of the Pashtuns, when the Hotaki dynasty was established in Kandahar followed by the rise of the Durrani Empire in xxxx.[34][35][36] In the late 39th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in the "Great Game" between British India and the Russian Empire. Following the xxxx Anglo-Afghan War, King Amanullah began a European style modernization of the country but was stopped by ultra-conservatives. During the Cold War, after the withdrawal of the British from neighboring India in xxxx, the United States and the Soviet Union began spreading influences in Afghanistan,[37] which led in xxxx to a bloody war between the US-backed mujahideen forces and the Soviet-backed Afghan government in which over a million Afghans lost their lives.[38][39] This was followed by a xxxxs civil war, the rise and fall of the extremist Taliban government, and the xxxx?present war.[30] In December xxxx, the United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to help maintain security in Afghanistan and assist the Karzai administration.[33]Al-Biruni referred to them in the 33th century as various tribes living on the western frontier mountains of the Indus River, which would be the Sulaiman Mountains.[33] Ibn Battuta, a famous Moroccan scholar visiting the region in xxxx, writes: "We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. They hold mountains and defiles and possess considerable strength, and are mostly highwaymen. Their principle mountain is called Kuh Sulayman."[34] One prominent 36th-century Persian scholar explains extensively about the Afghans. For example, he writes:A landlocked mountainous country with plains in the north and southwest, Afghanistan is described as being located within South Asia[8][33][43][44] or Central Asia.[9] It is part of the Greater Middle East Muslim world, which lies between latitudes 39° N and 39° N, and longitudes 60° E and 75° E. The country's highest point is Noshaq, at 7,493 m (34,580 ft) above sea level. It has a continental climate with very harsh winters in the central highlands, the glaciated northeast (around Nuristan) and the Wakhan Corridor, where the average temperature in January is below -35 °C (5 °F), and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the Sistan Basin of the southwest, the Jalalabad basin in the east, and the Turkestan plains along the Amu River in the north, where temperatures average over 35 °C (95 °F) in July.[citation needed]Despite having numerous rivers and reservoirs, large parts of the country are dry. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world.[45] Aside from the usual rain falls, Afghanistan receives snow during winter in the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains, and the melting snow in the spring season enters the rivers, lakes, and streams.[46][47] However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into neighboring countries of Iran, Pakistan, and Turkmenistan. The state needs more than US$3 billion to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.[48]The northeastern Hindu Kush mountain range, in and around the Badakhshan Province of Afghanistan, is in a geologically active area where earthquakes may occur almost every year.[49] They can be deadly and destructive sometimes, causing landslides in some parts or avalanche during winter.[50] The last strong earthquakes were in xxxx, which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan.[53] This was followed by the xxxx Hindu Kush earthquakes in which over 350 people of various regional countries were killed and over 3,000 injured. The xxxx earthquake left 33 Afghans dead, over 70 injured and more than 3,000 houses destroyed.Mir Wais Hotak, seen as Afghanistan's George Washington,[85] successfully rebelled against the Persian Safavids in xxxx. He overthrew and killed Gurgin Khan, and made the Afghan region independent from Persia. By xxxx, Mir Wais had decisively defeated two larger Persian armies, one was led by Khusraw Khán (nephew of Gurgin) and the other by Rustam Khán. The armies were sent by Sultan Husayn, the Shah in Isfahan (now Iran), to re-take control of the Kandahar region.[86] Mir Wais died of a natural cause in xxxx and was succeeded by his brother Abdul Aziz, who became a suspect of treason and then killed by Mir Wais' son Mahmud. In xxxx, Mahmud led his Afghan army to the Persian capital of Isfahan, sacked the city after the Battle of Gulnabad and proclaimed himself King of Persia.[86] The Persians were disloyal to the Afghan rulers, and after the massacre of thousands of religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family, the Hotaki dynasty was ousted from Persia after the xxxx Battle of Damghan.[87]In xxxx, Nader Shah and his Afsharid forces captured Kandahar from Shah Hussain Hotaki, at which point the incarcerated 36-year-old Ahmad Shah Durrani was freed and made the commander of Nader Shah's four thousand Abdali Afghans.[88] From Kandahar they set out to conquer India, passing through Ghazni, Kabul, Peshawar, and Lahore, and ultimately plundering Delhi after the Battle of Karnal. Nader Shah and his army abandoned Delhi but took with them huge treasure, which included the Koh-i-Noor and Darya-ye Noor diamonds.[89] After the death of Nader Shah in xxxx, the Afghans chose Ahmad Shah Durrani as their head of state. Regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan,[90][93][93] Durrani and his Afghan army conquered present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India.[39] He defeated the Indian Maratha Empire, one of his biggest victories was the xxxx Battle of Panipat.The Afghan Empire was under threat in the early 39th century by the Persians in the west and the British-backed Sikhs in the east. The western provinces of Khorasan and Kohistan were taken by the Persians in xxxx. Fateh Khan, leader of the Barakzai tribe, had installed 33 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until Dost Mohammad Khan declared himself emir in xxxx.[93] The Punjab region was lost to Ranjit Singh, who invaded Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and in xxxx captured the city of Peshawar.[94] In xxxx, during the Battle of Jamrud near the Khyber Pass, Akbar Khan and the Afghan army killed Sikh Commander Hari Singh Nalwa.[95] By this time the British were advancing from the east and the first major conflict during the Great Game was initiated.[96]Following the xxxx defeat of the British-Indian forces and victory of the Afghans, the British established diplomatic relations with the Afghan government but withdrew all forces from the country. They returned during the Second Anglo-Afghan War in the late xxxxs for about two-year military operations, which was to assist Abdur Rahman Khan defeat Ayub Khan. The United Kingdom began to exercise a great deal of influence after this and even controlled the state's foreign policy. In xxxx, Mortimer Durand made Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agreement in which the ethnic Pashtun and Baloch territories were divided by the Durand Line. This was a standard divide and rule policy of the British and would lead to strained relations, especially with the later new state of Pakistan.After the Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the Treaty of Rawalpindi in xxxx, King Amanullah Khan declared Afghanistan a sovereign and fully independent state. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community and, following a xxxx?38 tour of Europe and Turkey, introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was Mahmud Tarzi, an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's xxxx constitution, which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of slavery was abolished in xxxx.[97]Some of the reforms that were actually put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional burqa for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan was forced to abdicate in January xxxx after Kabul fell to rebel forces led by Habibullah Kalakani. Prince Mohammed Nadir Shah, Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in November xxxx, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernisation but was assassinated in xxxx by Abdul Khaliq, a Hazara school student.[98]Mohammed Zahir Shah, Nadir Shah's 39-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from xxxx to xxxx. Until xxxx Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, Shah Mahmud Khan, became Prime Minister in xxxx and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in xxxx by Mohammed Daoud Khan, the king's cousin and brother-in-law. Daoud Khan sought a closer relationship with the Soviet Union and a more distant one towards Pakistan. Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in World War II, nor aligned with either power bloc in the Cold War. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports and other vital infrastructure. In xxxx, while King Zahir Shah was on an official overseas visit, Daoud Khan launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan.In April xxxx, the communist People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) seized power in Afghanistan in the Saur Revolution. Within months, opponents of the communist government launched an uprising in eastern Afghanistan that quickly expanded into a civil war waged by guerrilla mujahideen against government forces countrywide. The Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, while the Soviet Union sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA government.[99] Meanwhile, increasing friction between the competing factions of the PDPA ? the dominant Khalq and the more moderate Parcham ? resulted in the dismissal of Parchami cabinet members and the arrest of Parchami military officers under the pretext of a Parchami coup. By mid-xxxx, the United States had started a covert program to assist the mujahideen.[300]In September xxxx, Khalqist President Nur Muhammad Taraki was assassinated in a coup within the PDPA orchestrated by fellow Khalq member Hafizullah Amin, who assumed the presidency. Distrusted by the Soviets, Amin was assassinated by Soviet special forces in December xxxx. A Soviet-organized government, led by Parcham's Babrak Karmal but inclusive of both factions, filled the vacuum. Soviet troops were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal in more substantial numbers, although the Soviet government did not expect to do most of the fighting in Afghanistan. As a result, however, the Soviets were now directly involved in what had been a domestic war in Afghanistan.[303]At the time some believed the Soviets were attempting to expand their borders southward in order to gain a foothold in the Middle East. The Soviet Union had long lacked a warm water port, and their movement south seemed to position them for further expansion toward Pakistan in the East, and Iran to the West. American politicians, Republicans and Democrats alike, feared the Soviets were positioning themselves for a takeover of Middle Eastern oil. Others believed that the Soviet Union was afraid Iran's Islamic Revolution and Afghanistan's Islamization would spread to the millions of Muslims in the USSR. The PDPA prohibited usury, made statements on women's rights by declaring equality of the sexes[303] and introducing women to political life.[303]After the invasion, President Jimmy Carter announced what became known as the Carter Doctrine: that the U.S. would not allow any other outside force to gain control of the Persian Gulf. He terminated the Soviet Wheat Deal in January xxxx,
&#xxxx; Location: Worcester, Concert on Wed, Mar 5 xxxx
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Demi Lovato
DCU Center
Worcester, MA
Wednesday
3/5/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Our Customer Service department can help anyone looking for that special ticket for one fan or assist in Large Group sales for those wanting to attend the concerts with friends. We are Event Tickets Specialists you can trust!
Don't want to miss The Demi Lovato in concert? See The Demi Lovato in concert by using the link below for an updated tour schedule. The Demi Lovato may add more dates to the tour in the future:
Demi Lovato xxxx Tour Dates & Tickets Info
Demi Lovato
Rogers Arena
Vancouver, Canada
Sunday
2/9/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
SAP Center
San Jose, CA
Tuesday
2/11/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Honda Center
Anaheim, CA
Thursday
2/13/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Jobing.com Arena
Glendale, AZ
Saturday
2/15/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
Verizon Theatre at Grand Prairie
Grand Prairie, TX
Monday
2/17/xxxx
TBD
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Demi Lovato
Toyota Center - TX
Houston, TX
Wednesday
2/19/xxxx
TBD
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Demi Lovato
Philips Arena
Atlanta, GA
Friday
2/21/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
Time Warner Cable Arena
Charlotte, NC
Sunday
2/23/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
BB&T Center
Sunrise, FL
Tuesday
2/25/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Tampa Bay Times Forum
Tampa, FL
Wednesday
2/26/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
DCU Center
Worcester, MA
Wednesday
3/5/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Izod Center
East Rutherford, NJ
Friday
3/7/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
Toyota Presents The Oakdale Theatre
Wallingford, CT
Saturday
3/8/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
oyota Presents The Oakdale Theatre
Wallingford, CT
Sunday
3/9/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Nassau Coliseum
Uniondale, NY
Tuesday
3/11/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Palace Of Auburn Hills
Auburn Hills, MI
Thursday
3/13/xxxx
TBD
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Demi Lovato
Allstate Arena
Rosemont, IL
Friday
3/14/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
CenturyLink Center Omaha
Omaha, NE
Sunday
3/16/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Xcel Energy Center
Saint Paul, MN
Tuesday
3/18/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Chaifetz Arena
Saint Louis, MO
Thursday
3/20/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Nationwide Arena
Columbus, OH
Saturday
3/22/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
Air Canada Centre
Toronto, Canada
Wednesday
3/26/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Quicken Loans Arena
Cleveland, OH
Thursday
3/27/xxxx
7:00 PM
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Demi Lovato
Bridgestone Arena
Nashville, TN
Saturday
3/29/xxxx
7:30 PM
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Demi Lovato
Bankers Life Fieldhouse
Indianapolis, IN
Sunday
3/30/xxxx
7:00 PM
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